In this blog post, we will compare Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory and Richard Dawkins’ natural selection theory and explain how the two theories can be reconciled.
Introduction
Richard Dawkins’ theory of natural selection is a theory that the evolution of living organisms is selected by nature through the evolutionary process of reproduction, mutation, competition, and selection, so that individuals and genes that are well-suited to the environment survive and evolve. Richard Dawkins accepted the theory of natural selection, but took a negative stance on Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory. Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory argues that traits considered handicaps are themselves the result of evolution. Richard Dawkins refutes Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory with various examples and explanations in “The Selfish Gene.” However, Richard Dawkins misunderstood the handicap theory, which in fact does not contradict Richard Dawkins’ theory of natural selection. Therefore, this essay will clarify Richard Dawkins’ misunderstanding of the handicap theory and argue that natural selection and the handicap theory are not contradictory. To this end, we will examine Richard Dawkins’ views on the handicap theory and its problems, consider Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory in detail, and refute Richard Dawkins’ examples that deny it. Finally, I will draw a conclusion by harmonizing natural selection and handicap theory.
Richard Dawkins’ rejection of handicap theory
Richard Dawkins changed his position on handicap theory. In the first edition of The Selfish Gene, he took a negative stance, saying that the handicap theory contradicts Darwin’s theory of natural selection, but in the revised edition, he explained Grafen’s four types of handicaps (qualification handicap, display handicap, conditional handicap, and strategic selection handicap) and agreed with strategic selection handicap to a certain extent. A qualification handicap means that males who survive despite having a handicap must be superior in other ways, and therefore are chosen by females. A display handicap is when males perform annoying tasks in order to reveal abilities that are normally hidden, and a conditional handicap is when only males of high quality can develop a handicap. Strategic selection handicap is when males “decide” to develop handicaps using information about their own quality. Richard Dawkins said that he interpreted Amotz Zahavi’s model as one of Grafen’s first three types, and he always opposed the idea in Amotz Zahavi’s theory that signals can be selected because they are handicaps to the individuals that display them. Richard Dawkins stated that Grafen proved this to be true, calling it an important result in the study of animal signaling. However, he still took a negative stance on Amotz Zahavi’s theory, pointing out that according to Amotz Zahavi’s logic, males with only one foot and one eye would evolve. He also argued that handicaps would be disadvantageous to offspring to the extent that they could attract females, and that handicaps should not be passed on to daughters. He cited the failure of all attempts to create a mathematical model as one of the reasons for rejecting the handicap theory. He rejected the handicap theory by citing examples of species that do not deliberately behave as if they have handicaps, such as sea lions, but demonstrate their superiority in other ways.
Richard Dawkins’ theory of natural selection
Richard Dawkins’ theory of natural selection, expressed in Darwin’s terms, states that evolution proceeds through natural selection, which means the differential survival of the fittest. The theory of natural selection states that in the evolutionary process of replication, mutation, competition, and selection, the evolution of living things is selected by nature, and individuals or genes that are well-suited to the environment survive and evolve. Where there is survival, there is also death, and for this selective death to have a powerful effect on the world, each entity must exist in the form of numerous copies, and at least some of those entities must be able to survive for a significant period of time during evolution. This is what genes are. Genes are indivisible entities that are passed down through generations without mixing, passing through intermediate generations. If genes were mixed, natural selection would not have occurred. In species that reproduce sexually, individuals are too large and have too short a lifespan to be important units of natural selection, and groups of individuals are an even larger unit, so they cannot be units either. Genes are eternal and potentially immortal, making them excellent candidates for the basic unit of natural selection. Genes influence the development of the body in which they reside, enabling it to survive a little better and reproduce more than when under the influence of opposing genes. Richard Dawkins says that what matters in fierce competition for survival is difference, and what matters in evolution is “difference controlled by genes.” This is what creates natural selection.
Richard Dawkins believes that natural selection also includes “sexual selection” and accepts the theory of sexual selection. In a society where males compete with each other to be recognized by females as masculine males, one of the best things a mother can do for her genes is to raise her sons to be attractive and masculine males. One of the most desirable traits a male can have is, simply put, sexual attractiveness itself. This is because attractive, masculine males will give their mothers many grandchildren. Richard Dawkins explains that although females may initially select males based on obvious traits such as heavy muscles, once these traits become widely accepted as attractive among females, they will continue to evolve because they are advantageous.
Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory
Israeli animal ecologist Amotz Zahavi proposed the “handicap theory.” Amotz Zahavi pointed out that the very act of females selecting males with good genes from among males provides males with an opportunity to cheat, and argued that if it is less costly to create fake muscles than to develop real ones, sexual selection will favor genes that create fake muscles. However, to counter this, females develop the ability to see through this deception. The basic premise of Amotz Zahavi’s theory is that males who promote themselves falsely will eventually be seen through by females. Therefore, Amotz Zahavi concludes that males who are truly successful are those who do not promote themselves falsely and clearly show their opponents that they are not deceiving them. In other words, masculine males must not only appear to be superior males, but must actually be superior males.
As shown in the examples presented in the book, sexually selected traits such as the tail of the peacock, the huge horns of the deer, and the tail of the peacock have always been considered paradoxical because they appear to be handicaps, or disadvantages, to their owners. However, Amotz Zahavi argues that these traits evolved precisely because they are handicaps. The fact that they survived and grew despite having handicaps that put them at a disadvantage is a way to appeal to females as masculine males.
In “The Selfish Gene,” the handicap theory is explained in genetic terms. Genes that cause handicaps in males increase in the gene pool because females select males with those handicaps. This is because there will also be more genes that cause females to choose males with handicaps. Choosing males with handicaps means choosing males with good genes in other respects, and the proof of this is that males with handicaps survive to adulthood. As a result, the superior “different” genes act favorably on the offspring that carry them, and this leads to the offspring surviving better, resulting in an increase in not only the genes that create handicaps but also the genes that cause females to select males with handicaps.
Why Richard Dawkins rejected the handicap theory
Richard Dawkins refuted the handicap theory with several examples in The Selfish Gene. When Richard Dawkins heard Amotz Zahavi’s theory, he pointed out that, according to its logical conclusion, males with only one foot and one eye would evolve.
Among the examples Richard Dawkins used to refute the handicap theory, the one about sea lions is noteworthy.
Richard Dawkins said that if a male can demonstrate his superiority over other males in ways other than deliberately behaving as if he has a handicap, he will undoubtedly increase his genetic success, and sea lions are an example of this. Elephants acquire and maintain their harems by defeating all males who try to invade them, even though they do not look impressive to females. It is said that the owners of harems win fights with invaders who covet their status simply because they have a clear reason to maintain their status: if the invaders had a chance of defeating the owners, they would have done so long ago. Females that mate only with the owners of harems combine their genes with those of powerful males, and if they are lucky, their sons will inherit their fathers’ ability to own harems. Therefore, as a counterargument to the handicap theory, he cited the principle that females favor males who win fights as mates in order to pass on their genes, and examples of females preferring males who own territory or have high status as mates.
Richard Dawkins also rejected the handicap theory because it appears to contradict natural selection. In The Selfish Gene, he discussed how mutations necessary for sexual selection can be maintained. Darwinian selection can only work when there are enough genetic mutations for selection to act upon. To explain this using rabbits as an example, if you try to breed rabbits with large ears, you may be successful at first, but if you continue to breed rabbits with large ears, eventually all rabbits will have large ears, and the necessary variation will cease to exist. This is because the environment does not exert pressure in one direction only in a consistent manner. Furthermore, although the handicap theory explains that it has a display effect because it is dangerous, natural selection would not favor endless danger, and since it would become disadvantageous once the display becomes reckless, it is considered to be contrary to natural selection.
Harmony between natural selection and handicap theory
The handicap theory belongs to the theory of sexual selection, so it can be considered part of the theory of natural selection. In the handicap theory, when a gene has a handicap, the survival rate of male individuals is lower. However, if selected by females, males can express and emphasize that they have strong genes by surviving despite their handicap. Even if males have a lower survival rate due to their handicap, they believe that it is more beneficial to be selected by females and pass on their genes to future generations, so the handicap trait develops and is passed on. Therefore, this can be seen as sexual selection, and since sexual selection theory belongs to natural selection theory, it does not contradict Richard Dawkins’ theory of natural selection. For example, in the jungle, deer with small horns are more likely to survive, but if they have other superior traits, they can sufficiently offset the handicap of having small horns, so females may choose males with large horns.
Furthermore, Richard Dawkins’ refutation of the handicap theory using the example of sea lions is not sufficient grounds to deny the handicap theory. Richard Dawkins argues that even if males do not necessarily show their strength through handicaps, they can still show females that they are strong by protecting their harems, as in the example of sea lions. However, this example alone cannot properly refute the handicap theory. This is because it depends on the characteristics of the animal. Not all animals have territories and live based on them. In the case of sea lions, they have a special territory called a harem, and the males have a unique role of preventing intruders from entering this territory. However, this is not the case with deer and peacocks, which appear in the handicap theory. Without handicaps, they have almost no way of proving their strength. Therefore, they develop handicaps to prove their strength to females. Richard Dawkins said that there are cases where females prefer males who own territory or have high status as mates, but in the case of animals that do not live in territories or herds, it is difficult for females to identify males in this way. Therefore, the way for males to show their strength to females is to develop handicaps. Furthermore, developing handicaps and other traits for survival is included in the theory of sexual selection and can be seen as a good example of natural selection.
Conclusion
So far, we have looked at the misunderstanding of Richard Dawkins’ handicap theory and his denial of it, and we have also examined Amotz Zahavi’s handicap theory in detail. Through this, we examined the contradictions in Richard Dawkins’ denial and tried to harmonize natural selection theory and handicap theory.
As we have seen above, Richard Dawkins misunderstood handicap theory. After examining handicap theory, we found that it is included in sexual selection theory, which is part of Richard Dawkins’ natural selection theory. Handicap theory can be seen as part of sexual selection in that males develop handicaps to be selected by females and develop other traits for survival. We also found that the example of sea lions used by Richard Dawkins to refute this is not sufficient to refute handicap theory.
Through this argumentative essay, I refuted Richard Dawkins’ criticism of the handicap theory and considered the relationship between natural selection and the handicap theory. In conclusion, I demonstrated that the handicap theory is a valid theory that belongs to natural selection.
