This blog post examines the motivations behind the uprising of Korea’s righteous army during the Imjin War period, prompting us to reconsider for whom they truly fought.
Few research topics in Korean history have accumulated as much scholarly output as the Imjin War. The Imjin War holds significance beyond a mere conflict, profoundly impacting all aspects of Joseon society and culture. Its aftermath dramatically transformed Joseon’s social structure, international relations, and economic situation, with these changes becoming crucial factors in the kingdom’s subsequent development and decline. However, perspectives on this subject have been excessively biased. It has been presented almost exclusively as a prime example of the entire nation uniting to ‘overcome a national crisis,’ while the diverse realities behind this narrative remain inadequately illuminated. In particular, concrete research on how local communities and social classes experienced and responded to the war, and how it impacted their lives, has been relatively scarce. For instance, research is needed on how the extreme hardship faced by the common people due to famine, epidemics, and economic collapse during the war influenced the rightful army movement.
Particularly, the causes of the rightful army uprisings warrant fresh examination. Traditionally, the reasons for these uprisings have been interpreted primarily through the lens of ‘loyalty to the king’ derived from Confucian ideology. Indeed, examining the content of the proclamations issued by the rightful army commanders to rally their forces suggests this interpretation holds some validity. The commanders were predominantly former officials or Confucian scholars who deeply internalized Confucian ideals. However, while this interpretation may adequately explain the commanders’ motivations for raising the rightful army, it falls short in explaining why ordinary people joined the cause.
The outbreak of the Imjin War dealt a massive shock to Joseon society, and the court’s response was chaotic due to the war’s sudden arrival. The people were caught unprepared by the abrupt onset of the war, and the court’s irresponsible behavior during the conflict led to a highly negative public sentiment toward the Joseon dynasty at the time. In this context, it is difficult to believe that the common people joined the rightful army solely out of loyalty to the king. It is also questionable how much of the content of the Chinese-character-laden proclamations, filled with the logic of loyalty to the king, the common people could actually read and understand. Considering the social reality of a high illiteracy rate in late Joseon, it would have been even more difficult for the common people to comprehend these proclamations and put them into practice. Therefore, the motivation for the participation of the common people, who formed the backbone of the rightful armies, must be sought elsewhere.
The members of the rightful armies were connected to each other by blood ties or local ties. Consequently, they had a common object to protect, which fostered strong cohesion. That object was not the distant king, but their nearby families; not abstract ideals, but the villages where they lived. The responsibility to defend their villages and protect their families even during war was a crucial factor driving the commoners’ participation in the rightful armies. The reason they avoided joining the government troops and instead joined the rightful armies can also be found in the fact that, unlike the government troops who had to move around according to the court’s orders, the rightful armies were relatively dedicated solely to local defense. With few exceptions, the activities of the rightful armies did not extend beyond the county level, and joint operations between different rightful armies were rare.
The motivations for rightful army leaders to participate cannot be reduced solely to the nominal justification of ‘loyalty to the king’. These leaders were generally individuals who had established solid social and economic foundations within their respective regions. They were leaders who guided their communities through social influence and economic resources; consequently, their interests extended beyond personal honor and were directly tied to the well-being of their entire local society. However, the war threatened to completely destroy this foundation. In this situation, the practical interest of these leaders in maintaining their regional bases combined with Confucian principles of righteousness, becoming the motivation for raising the rightful army. Meanwhile, the royal court, forced to rely on the rightful army’s strength due to the government forces’ successive defeats, also encouraged the active uprising of the rightful army by granting official positions to its leaders. In the circumstances of the time, where one could only maintain one’s status as a yangban by becoming a bureaucrat, the appointment to official positions held great appeal for the rightful army leaders. This serves as an example demonstrating how significant the social and economic meaning of official positions was in Joseon society at the time.
